Background:
UN Women, grounded in the vision of equality enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations, works for the elimination of discrimination against women and girls; the empowerment of women; and the achievement of equality between women and men as partners and beneficiaries of development, human rights, humanitarian action and peace and security.
The gender pay gap remains a persistent and entrenched barrier to achieving gender equality and women's economic empowerment globally, including in the East and Southern Africa (ESA) region. Despite womenโs increasing participation in the labour market, significant wage disparities between women and men continue to prevail, reflecting a complex interplay of discriminatory social norms, unequal care responsibilities, and structural inequalities in labour markets.
In 2023, UN Women undertook a groundbreaking Gender Pay Gap (GPG) study for East and Southern Africa, the first of its kind to systematically analyse the extent of wage inequalities in the region. The GPG study examined wage disparities between women and men, analysing factors such as education, occupation, sector of employment, and labour market segmentation. It employed rigorous econometric tools such as OLS regressions, Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, and Duncan segregation indexes to unpack the structural causes of pay inequality. The findings revealed that even when accounting for observable factors, significant unexplained pay gaps persist, reflecting deep-seated gender-based discrimination and biases in wage-setting practices. The study provided critical data and evidence that are now being used to shape policy dialogue and advocacy around equal pay and workplace inclusion. However, the GPG study also highlighted significant gaps in available evidence on how family dynamics and care responsibilities intersect with wage disparities. While the initial analysis provided an essential snapshot of gender-based wage gaps, it did not specifically examine how parenthood and marriage impact earnings for women and men, and how unpaid care work and gender norms exacerbate these inequalities. For instance, while it identified a general gender pay gap, it did not provide a detailed analysis of the motherhood penalty, fatherhood premium, or family-related wage penalties (combining effects of marriage and parenthood) that influence women's and men's economic outcomes differently.
To address these gaps, UN Women ESARO seeks to conduct a follow-up study to unpack the motherhood penalty and fatherhood premium in East and Southern Africa, to build directly on the foundation of the initial GPG research. By using and expanding on the datasets, methodologies, and partnerships already developed during the GPG study, this research will conduct a deep-dive analysis into how marriage, parenthood, and caregiving responsibilities influence earnings, labour force participation, and occupational segregation for women and men in ESA. This will allow for intersectional analysis of wage gaps, focusing on how different groups of women and men, such as married versus single, parents versus non-parents, formal versus informal workers, experience the labour market.
Specifically, this study will explore the dynamics of the motherhood penalty (the reduction in earnings women face after having children), the fatherhood premium (increased earnings for men after becoming fathers), the marriage penalty (reduction in womenโs wages after marriage, contrasted with a marriage premium for men), and the combined family penalty. This is a deeply under-examined dimension of gender inequality in ESA, especially given the region's high rates of informal employment, entrepreneurship among women, and weak social protection systems that exacerbate care responsibilities for women.
Additionally, to the extent possible, the study will examine why these penalties and premiums vary starkly across different ESA countries using quantitative methods from available data sets. For instance, while Rwanda shows no apparent motherhood or family penalty, South Africa exhibits a motherhood penalty as high as 28%, pointing to complex interactions between social norms, labour market structures, and policy environments. By unpacking these variations, the research will generate critical evidence on the policy and normative drivers of these disparities, offering concrete pathways for addressing them. For countries where new data is available from the previous GPG study, the analysis will need to be updated for the overall GPG and then a detailed analysis on the penalties and premiums will need to be carried out.
The initial task for the consultant will be to conduct a comprehensive analysis of data availability across East and Southern Africa. This will identify countries where new datasets are available for the GPG analysis to be updated, and will serve as the foundation for determining the feasibility of the parenthood study and identifying countries where sufficient data exists to conduct an in-depth analysis. Following discussions with UN Women, the consultant will produce a detailed inception report, assessing the availability and quality of relevant datasets across selected ESA countries. This report will provide a clear rationale for the countryโs selection and outline the methodological approach for conducting the analysis in contexts where robust data is available.ย
Objective of the assignmentย
The purpose of this consultancy is to lead and deliver a comprehensive regional research study that examines the motherhood penalty, fatherhood premium, marriage penalties, and combined family penalties across selected ESA countries. The study will explore how caregiving expectations, gender norms, and wage disparities interact and provide actionable recommendations to inform gender-responsive labour market and social protection policies. Key focus areas would include (1) economic and policy analysis of family and parenthood wage gaps, (2) socio-cultural factors and norms around caregiving and parenthood, (3) intersectional analysis of the GPG and care responsibilities, (4) policy review and analysis of support structures for working parents.
Scope of Work
Under the guidance and direct supervision of the Womenโs Economic Empowerment Policy Specialist at UN Women East and Southern Africa Regional Office (ESARO), the consultant will be responsible for the following tasks:
Inception Phase
- Desk review of available data sets to determine which countries in ESA Region need GPG analysis updated.
- Conduct a desk review of existing regional and global literature on the motherhood penalty, fatherhood premium, marriage penalty, and care-related wage gaps including in care sectors.
- Develop an inception report outlining the methodology, analytical framework, country focus, timeline, and key deliverables, including proposed datasets to be analysed.
- Identify and map relevant stakeholders, including government agencies, research institutions, and civil society organizations that could contribute to the study.
Data Collection and Analysis
- Identify and collate relevant datasets from selected ESA countries (e.g., labour force surveys, household surveys, national statistics) with a focus on gender-disaggregated data.
- Employ advanced econometric methods, including but not limited to OLS regressions, Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, Duncan segregation indexes, and pseudo-event study techniques to analyse parenthood and marriage wage gaps, including intersectional analyses (e.g., by sector, income level, education, urban/rural, formal/informal employment).
- Identify potential legal and policy factors influencing observed wage gaps and penalties.
- Conduct a comparative analysis across countries to identify regional trends and country-specific divergences.
Policy Review and Analysis
- Analyse the cost of the GPG to GDP and how closing the GPG could contribute to GDP growth in the countries covered by the study (previous and new data sets).
- Highlight the potential tax revenue gains of achieving pay equity in the countries covered by the study (previous and new data sets).
Synthesis and Report Writing
- Develop a comprehensive research report presenting key findings, analysis, and policy recommendations (including recommendations for strengthening data sets).
- Include an executive summary, methodological annex, and country-specific highlights.
- Provide a summary of key regional trends and their implications for economic growth, social protection, and gender equality.
Validation and Dissemination Support
- Present preliminary findings in a regional validation workshop (organized by UN Women) for feedback from key stakeholders, including government, private sector, civil society, and development partners.
- Revise and finalize the report based on feedback received.
Deliverables Deliverable Description Timeline 1. Inception Report Including literature review, methodology, analytical framework, country selection, datasets, and work plan. Within 4 weeks of contract start date 2. Dataset Compilation and Analysis Report Summary of datasets compiled, econometric approaches applied, and initial findings. Within 10 weeks of contract start date 3. Draft Analytical Report Draft regional report including data analysis, policy review, findings, and recommendations. Within 15 weeks of contract start date 4. Validation Workshop Presentation PowerPoint presentation of key findings for validation workshop. Within 18 weeks of contract start date 5. Final Research Report Final, fully edited, and proofread research report incorporating feedback from the validation process. Within 20 weeks of contract start date
Deliverable percentage of total paymentย Inception reportย
30% Dataset complication and analysis report ย Draft analytical report 30% Validation workshop presentation
40 % Final research reportย ย
Consultantโs Workplace and Official Travel
This is a home-based consultancy.
Competencies :
Core Values:
- Integrity;
- Professionalism;
- Respect for Diversity.
Core Competencies:
- Awareness and Sensitivity Regarding Gender Issues;
- Accountability;
- Creative Problem Solving;
- Effective Communication;
- Inclusive Collaboration;
- Stakeholder Engagement;
- Leading by Example.
Please visitย this linkย for more information on UN Womenโs Values and Competencies Framework:ย
Functional Competencies:
- Technical credibility in drafting reports and guidelinesย Excellent research, analysis and report and study writing skills
- Ability to gather and interpret data, draw logical conclusions and present results and recommendations..
- Excellent analytical skills with strong drive for results and capacity to work independently.
- Excellent English communication and writing skills.
- Strong quantitative and qualitative research skills.ย
- Familiarity with statistical and econometric software (e.g., Stata, LaTeX, R).ย
- Strong understanding of gender equality, womenโs economic empowerment, gender pay gap and unpaid care work issues.ย
Required Qualifications
Education and Certification:
- Masterโs degree or equivalent in Economics, Gender Studies, Public Policy, Development Studies, or a related field. A PhD is an asset.
- A first-level university degree in combination with two additional years of qualifying experience may be accepted in lieu of the advanced university degree.
Experience:
- Minimum of 2 years of progressively responsible experience in research and policy analysis on gender equality, labour markets, or social protection.ย
- Proven experience conducting complex econometric analysis and managing large datasets, particularly in relation to gender pay gaps, care economy, or labour market dynamics.ย
- Demonstrated experience in producing high-quality quantitative research reports, policy briefs, or academic publications.ย
- Experience working in East and Southern Africa or on regional studies in similar socio-economic contexts.
Languages:
- Fluency in English is required.
- Knowledge of another official UN language is desirable (French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian or Spanish).
Statements :
In July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly created UN Women, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. The creation of UN Women came about as part of the UN reform agenda, bringing together resources and mandates for greater impact. It merges and builds on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system (DAW, OSAGI, INSTRAW and UNIFEM), which focused exclusively on gender equality and women's empowerment.
Diversity and inclusion:
At UN Women, we are committed to creating a diverse and inclusive environment of mutual respect. UN Women recruits, employs, trains, compensates,ย and promotes regardless of race, religion, color, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, age,ย ability, national origin,ย or any other basis covered by appropriate law. All employment is decided on the basis of qualifications, competence, integrity and organizational need.
If you need any reasonable accommodation to support your participation in the recruitment and selection process, please include this information in your application.
UN Women has a zero-tolerance policy on conduct that is incompatible with the aims and objectives of the United Nations and UN Women, including sexual exploitation and abuse, sexual harassment, abuse of authority and discrimination. All selected candidates will be expected to adhere toย UN Womenโsย policiesย and proceduresย andย theย standardsย of conduct expected of UN Women personnelย and will therefore undergo rigorous reference and background checks. (Background checks will include the verification of academic credential(s) and employment history. Selected candidates may be required to provide additional information to conduct a background check.)
Note: Applicants must ensure that all sections of the application form, including the sections on education and employment history, are completed. If all sections are not completed the application may be disqualified from the recruitment and selection process.
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